Publication date: Jul 16, 2026
Cytokines play crucial roles in regulating immune cell interactions, and in influencing innate and adaptive immune responses. People living with HIV (PLWH) on antiretroviral therapy (ART) show reduced inflammation and immune activation but with partial immune recovery. Interactions between HIV and human coronaviruses (hCoVs), with respect to immune modulation and ART impact on immune recovery, are not well understood. In this case-control cross-sectional study, we investigated cytokine profiles among three groups: PLWH co-infected with hCoVs (HIV+/hCoVs+), HIV mono-infected individuals (HIV+/hCoVs-), and HIV-negative without hCoVs control group (HIV-/hCoVs). A total of 300 PLWH were screened for hCoVs in three hospitals by subjecting their nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs to RNA extraction and PCR. Sixty-seven (67) PLWH with hCoVs were age- and sex-matched with HIV mono-infected and HIV negative control groups, and plasma samples were collected to assess cytokine levels using a Luminex multiplex bead-based immunoassay. Lower cytokine levels were observed among the HIV co-infected and mono-infected groups compared to HIV-negative control group. Granzyme B, TNF-α, IL-17 A, IL-3, IL-15 and VEGF were significantly reduced in the HIV co-infected group. Participants who had been on ART for less than a year had higher TNF-α levels than those who had been on ART for more than 5 years. The study demonstrates that HIV co-infection with hCoVs is associated with significantly reduced levels of key cytokines, which may be due to immune dysregulation and/or exhaustion associated with chronic HIV infections. The cytokine phenotype may be mitigated with long-term ART, which reduces inflammation and promote immunological recovery.
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| Concepts | Keywords |
|---|---|
| Cytokines | |
| Human coronaviruses | |
| Human immunodeficiency virus |